Plant Cell Wall Is a Stumbling Stone for Molecular Biologists

Cell wall is a key structure of the plant organism engaged in numerous functions, and plants spend enormous resources on cell wall formation. Cell wall components are the most widespread organic substances on the Earth. However important is assembling plant cell wall polysaccharides, this process has been insufficiently studied by the methods of molecular genetics; in particular, too little is known of the genes that code for the relevant enzymes (glycosyltransferases, GT). The review addresses the current situation by expounding on GT classification, describing the characteristics of enzymes that synthesize cell wall polysaccharides, and summing up the existing knowledge of already identified and putative cellulose and callose synthases and GT localized in the Golgi apparatus. The methodology for searching and characterizing new genes that participate in cell wall formation is under discussion.__________Translated from Fiziologiya Rastenii, Vol. 52, No. 3, 2005, pp. 443–462.Original Russian Text Copyright © 2005 by Gorshkova, Nikolovski, Finaev.     

Cleavage of the Carboxyl-Terminus of LEACS2, a Tomato 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-Carboxylic Acid Synthase Isomer, by a 64-kDa Tomato Metalloprotease Produces a Truncated but Active Enzyme

1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid （ACC） synthase （ACS） is the principal enzyme in phytohormone ethylene biosynthesis. Previous studies have shown that the hypervariable C-terminus of ACS is proteolytically processed in vivo. However, the protease responsible for this has not yet been identified. In the present study, we investigated the processing of the 55-kDa full-length tomato ACS （LeACS2） into 52-, 50- and 49-kDa truncated isoforms in ripening tomato （Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv. Cooperation 903） fruit using the sodium dodecyl sulfate-boiling method. Meanwhile, an LeACS2-processing protease was purified via multi-step column chromatography from tomato fruit. Subsequent biochemical analysis of the 64-kDa purified protease revealed that it is a metalloprotease active at multiple cleavage sites within the hypervariable C-terminus of LeACS2. N-terminal sequencing and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight analysis indicated that the LeACS2-processing metalloprotease cleaves at the C-terminal sites Lys^438, Glu^447, Lys^448, Asn^456, Ser^460, Ser^462, Lys^463, and Leu^474, but does not cleave the N- terminus of LeACS2. Four C-terminus-deleted （26-50 amino acids） LeACS2 fusion proteins were overproduced and subjected to proteolysis by this metalloprotease to identify the multiple cleavage sites located on the N-terminal side of the phosphorylation site Ser^460. The results indisputably confirmed the presence of cleavage sites within the region between the α-helix domain （H14） and Ser^460 for this metalloprotease. Furthermore, the resulting C-terminally truncated LeACS2 isoforms were active enzymatically. Because this protease could produce LeACS2 isoforms in vitro similar to those detected in vivo, it is proposed that this metalloprotease may be involved in the proteolysis of LeACS2 in vivo.     

Cleavage of the Carboxyl-Terminus of LEACS2, a Tomato 1-Aminocycl opropane-1-Carboxylic Acid Synthase Isomer, by a 64-kDa Tomato Metalloprotease Produces a Truncated but Active Enzyme

l-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase (ACS) is the principal enzyme in phytohormone ethylene biosynthesis. Previous studies have shown that the hypervariable C-terminus of ACS is proteolytically processed in vivo. However, the protease responsible for this has not yet been identified. In the present study, we investigated the processing of the 55-kDa full-length tomato ACS (LeACS2) into 52-, 50- and 49-kDa truncated isoforms in ripening tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. cv.Cooperation 903) fruit using the sodium dodecyl sulfate-boiling method. Meanwhile, an LeACS2-processing protease was purified via multi-step column chromatography from tomato fruit. Subsequent biochemical analysis of the 64-kDa purified protease revealed that it is a metalloprotease active at multiple cleavage sites within the hypervariable C-terminus of LeACS2. N-terminal sequencing and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight analysis indicated that the LeACS2-processing metalloprotease cleaves at the C-terminal sites Lys438, Glu447, Lys448, Asn456, Ser460, Ser462, Lys463, and Leu474, but does not cleave the Nterminus of LeACS2. Four C-terminus-deleted (26-50 amino acids) LeACS2 fusion proteins were overproduced and subjected to proteolysis by this metalloprotease to identify the multiple cleavage sites located on the N-terminal side of the phosphorylation site Ser460. The results indisputably confirmed the presence of cleavage sites within the region between the α-helix domain (H14) and Ser460 for this metalloprotease.Furhermore, the resulting C-terminally truncated LeACS2 isoforms were active enzymatically. Because this protease could produce LeACS2 isoforms in vitro similar to those detected in vivo, it is proposed that this metalloprotease may be involved in the proteolysis of LeACS2 in vivo.     

植物萜类合酶研究进展

随着植物中许多有价值的萜类化合物被发现和应用于人类生活 ,萜类生物合成途径的研究倍受重视。萜类合酶催化单萜、倍半萜和二萜生物合成 ,即分别催化GPP、FPP和GGPP形成单萜、倍半萜和二萜。本文叙述了近年来在植物萜类合酶催化机理、克隆策略和萜类生物工程的研究进展     

苹果柠檬酸合酶3基因家族成员鉴定及表达分析

柠檬酸合酶(citrate synthase 3, CS3)是细胞代谢途径中的关键酶之一,其活性调节着生物体的物质和能量代谢过程。本研究旨在从苹果全基因组中鉴定CS3基因家族成员,并进行生物信息学和表达模式分析,为研究苹果CS3基因的潜在功能提供理论基础。利用BLASTp基于GDR数据库鉴定苹果CS3家族成员,通过Pfam、SMART、MEGA5.0、clustalx.exe、ExPASy Proteomics Server、MEGAX、SOPMA、MEME和WoLF PSORT等软件分析CS3蛋白序列基本信息、亚细胞定位情况、结构域组成、系统进化关系以及染色体定位情况。利用酸含量的测定和实时荧光定量PCR (real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction, qRT-PCR)技术检测苹果6个CS3的组织表达和诱导表达特性。苹果CS3基因家族包含6个成员,这些CS3蛋白包括473−608个不等的氨基酸残基,等电点分布在7.21−8.82。亚细胞定位结果显示CS3蛋白分别定位在线粒体和叶绿体。系统进化分析可将其分为3类,各亚家族基因数量分别为2个。染色体定位结果显示,CS3基因分布在苹果不同的染色体上。蛋白二级结构以a-螺旋为主,其次是无规则卷曲,b-转角所占比例最小。筛选的6个家族成员在不同苹果组织中均有表达,整体表达趋势从高到低依次为MdCS3.4相对表达含量最高,MdCS3.6次之,其他家族成员相对表达量依次为MdCS3.3>MdCS3.2>MdCS3.1>MdCS3.5。qRT-PCR结果显示,MdCS3.1和MdCS3.3基因在酸含量较低的‘成纪1号’果肉中相对表达量最高,酸含量较高的‘艾斯达’果肉中MdCS3.2和MdCS3.3基因相对表达量最高。因此,本研究对不同苹果品种中CS3基因相对表达量进行了检测,并分析了其在苹果果实酸合成过程中的作用。结果表明,CS3基因在不同苹果品种中的相对表达量存在差异,为后续研究苹果品质形成机制提供了参考。     

不同性别类型黄瓜ACC合酶基因的单核苷酸多态性标记和酶切扩增长度多态性标记

黄瓜的性别分化与乙烯密切相关,1-氨基环丙烷-1-羧酸(ACC)合酶是乙烯生物合成过程中的关键酶.根据ACC合酶基因家族的保守序列设计PCR引物,从8个不同性别类型(雌雄同株、强雌性和全雌性)黄瓜品种中克隆了长度为1188bp的ACC合酶基因(CS-ACS2)片段(GenBank登记号为:DQ115884～DQ115886和DQ115875～DQ115879).经测序分析,3个雌雄同株性别类型品种的序列完全相同.与之相比,5个强雌性和全雌性品种中存在8个单核苷酸多态性(SNPs)标记,SNPs标记为4个A←→G和4个T←→C之间的转换.在8个SNPs中,有1个SNP位于内含子区域,其余7个SNPs都位于外显子区域.在7个位于外显子区域的SNPs中,有3个为非编码区的SNPs,4个为cSNPs.而在4个cSNPs中,有3个导致了编码的氨基酸序列改变.研究结果表明,与雌雄同株性别类型相比,雌性系中均存在单核苷酸的变异,这提示ACC合酶基因CS-ACS2的单核苷酸变异可能与黄瓜雌性系的发生形成有关.另一方面,根据SNP多态性还发展了一个酶切扩增长度多态性(CAPS)标记C-MT700.利用CAPS标记C-MT700能将强雌性优良品种MT-705与其他黄瓜品种相区别,该标记在黄瓜育种生产上具有一定的应用价值.此外,研究获得的SNPs标记和CAPS标记丰富了黄瓜的分子标记种类.     

萝芙木异胡豆苷合成酶基因的克隆与分析

以萝芙木叶片为材料,应用RT-PCR方法首次克隆了萝芙木萜类吲哚生物碱(terpeno id indo le a lka lo ids,T IA s)生物合成途径中重要的限速酶——异胡豆苷合成酶(strictos id ine syn thase,STR)基因(G enB ank登录号DQ 0170054)并进行了生物信息学分析,以pCAM B IA 1304为基本载体构建其植物高效表达载体pCAM B IA 1304 -R vSTR.生物信息学分析表明,该基因的编码区长度为1 035 bp,编码344个氨基酸的多肽,其理论分子量为38.2kD,等电点为5.2,N-端有一长度为27个氨基酸的信号肽;二级结构预测表明,延伸链和不规则盘绕是R vSTR蛋白最大量的结构元件,而α-螺旋和β-转角则散布于整个蛋白质中.同源性分析表明,R vSTR和其它植物来源的STR同源;采用M EGA 3构建了具代表性的植物STR的分子系统发育树,首次提出植物来源的STR分为2种类型,即STR 1和STR 2,其中来源于能够产生T IA s的植物的STR属于STR 2类型.     

1型糖尿病葡萄糖代谢与胰岛素信号传导途径异常导致大鼠海马Alzheimer样tau蛋白过度磷酸化修饰

Tau蛋白过度磷酸化是Alzheimer病(Alzheimer disease, AD)的一个重要病理特征.采用 I 型糖尿病大鼠模型,研究胰岛素信号传导途径及葡萄糖代谢失调对tau蛋白过度磷酸化的形成机制进行探讨.以同龄Wistar大鼠做对照（CTL）,胰腺大部分切除造低胰岛素组（PX）,STZ较大剂量一次性注射造1型糖尿病模型即低胰岛素高血糖组（T1DM）.葡萄糖氧化酶法检测血浆血糖,放免法检测血浆胰岛素,蛋白质印迹分析海马内总tau蛋白及tau蛋白上部分位点（Ser199、Thr212、Ser214、Ser396及Ser422）的磷酸化及神经细胞膜上葡萄糖转运子3（Glucose transport 3,GLUT3）水平.γ-32P-ATP和特异性底物肽检测海马内胰岛素信号传导系统中的关键酶糖原合成酶激酶-3β（Glycogen synthase kinase-3β, GSK-3β）活性.发现3组大鼠海马回总tau蛋白水平无显著差异,但以高血糖、低胰岛素血症为特征的T1DM组在tau蛋白Ser199、Thr212、Ser214、Ser396及Ser422位点上,呈现过度磷酸化状态,以低胰岛素血症为特征而血糖正常的PX组在位点Ser199、Thr212及Ser396上磷酸化程度比CTL组显著上升, 在位点Ser214及 Ser422上的磷酸化程度的改变不显著;T1DM及PX组大鼠海马 GSK-3β活性显著高于CTL组, 而GLUT3水平在T1DM和PX组均降低, 尤以T1DM组降低更显著.研究结果显示,胰岛素水平低下可能通过激活GSK-3β和下调细胞内葡萄糖代谢的双重作用引起脑内tau蛋白过度磷酸化.     

酸提高绿茶提取物对脂肪酸合酶的抑制活性

脂肪酸合酶和肥胖、癌症等人类重大疾病相关.获取高活性脂肪酸合酶抑制剂有重要应用价值.50％乙醇的绿茶提取物具有抑制脂肪酸合酶和经口服降低大、小鼠体重的功能.该提取物在酸的作用下可明显地提高其抑制脂肪酸合酶的能力.采用1 mol/L硫酸或盐酸在100℃下处理绿茶提取物,发现该提取物对脂肪酸合酶的抑制活性随时间逐步提高.在25℃至120℃温度下,提高处理温度使抑制活性提高的速度加快和程度加大. 用1 mol/L盐酸120℃处理35 min或3 mol/L盐酸100℃处理30 min可使绿茶提取物抑制脂肪酸合酶的半抑制浓度下降20倍左右,达到1 μg/ml以下.用pKa值4.76至1.27的1 mol/L浓度的4种有机酸在100℃作用150 min使绿茶提取物抑制活性分别提高到1.48至5.84倍.提高酸的浓度也使被作用的提取物的抑制活性提高的更多.表现抑制活性提高的速度及程度和氢离子浓度正相关.判断绿茶提取物在酸作用下抑制活性的提高来源于其中所含儿茶素在氢离子作用下发生了化学变化.初步实验表明其变化过程比较复杂,确定其分子机制还需进一步的研究工作.